Spelling rationales – the challenge of writing English, Hebrew and French

 

Learning how to speak a language is intuitive. With a little bit of effort, courage and humility, it is possible to learn how to speak a language without formally studying it. Every child, regardless of intelligence, learns how to speak to one degree or another of skill. By contrast, writing a language is a great challenge for many people. I personally can attest to my complete insecurity regarding the correct spelling of words in English, Hebrew and French. Yet, I admit that the apparent randomness of a spelling system can reflect historical realities or grammar rules, whose challenges can be overcome with modern computer systems.

Let us begin with the most common language of communication (not necessarily first language), English. Both native and non-native speakers have a litany of complaints about inconsistent connections between letters and sounds. A few examples will suffice: through vs tough; know, low vs women; receive vs weigh; and time vs action. For the uninitiated, there is a higher chance to succeed in blackjack than in English spelling. Some people blame Samuel Johnson in 1755 or maybe Robert Cawdrey before him in 1604 for writing the first dictionaries and creating this chaos. Alas, they are not guilty. Distance creates diversity of pronunciation, even today, and, thus, a lack of predictability. In many parts of the world, listeners immediately can tell where a person grew up just by hearing certain sounds or words. In parts of pre-literacy England and to a certain extent today, people did pronounce those words exactly as they were written, especially the guttural sounds, kn and gh. In fact, in one older English manuscript,  the modern word girl is written ghurl, something that an Arabic speaker or a Scot would have no problem saying. Thus, English spelling is really phonetic but only for some people at some time in history. The rest of us have to memorize it somehow.

Time and distance have also affected Hebrew. In theory, every letter in an alphabet represents a different sound. In ancient Hebrew, each letter was pronounced in a manner distinct from each other. However, in modern Hebrew, many, if not most, Israelis do not generally pronounce the following letters in clearly distinct ways: alef א and ayin ע, an a sound; kuf ק and kof כּ, a k sound; sin שׂ and samech ס, an s sound; tof ת and tet ט, a t sound; het ח  and kof כ, a ch sound. True, eastern (mizhahi) Jews, especially Yemenites, have to a certain extent retained the historical pronunciation differences but people generally do not annunciate the distinctions between the letters. As a result, as an immigrant that arrived in Israel as an adult and never studied the language at school, I am uncertain. Which is happiness and which is wealth, אושר [osher] or עושר [o’sher]?. Did I confuse every and voice in כל קול [kol kol]? Did I write that I need time עת or a pen אט, both pronounced [et]? Which is form and which is grab, טפוס [tofes] or תופס [tofes]? The actual key is to know the root of the word, which indicates the correct letter to be used. While it does increase the odds of a correct guess, not every Israeli, not to mention immigrants, feels absolute certainty when writing Hebrew.

As for French, it seems to me that framers of the language chose ease of speaking over simplicity of writing, plausibly using Latin rules of grammar as the excuse. To explain, it is possible to represent the long a sound, as in the a in the word late in English, in 13 different ways (forgive me if I missed a few). The following words all end in a long a: donner, donnez, donné, donnée, donnés, données, donnais, donnait, donnaient, donnerai, les, abeilles, et and forêt. For non-French speakers, the meanings are to give, you give, given (n), given (f), given (pl), given (f. pl), you gave, he gave, they gave, I will give, the, bees, and and forest, respectively. That is one impressive haul of uses for one sound. The price for such efficiency is, of course, the difficulty in knowing how to write the correct form. Since the establishment of universal schooling in France in 1882, generations of French children have had to work hard to master the rules of grammar required to know when the correct tense endings, when to add the silent e and s to the past participle and which letters are the end of a specific noun. The results, then and now, are far from perfect. Actually, I find French spelling relatively easy because I understand these rules. I find it convenient that they are based on grammar, not history.

Those of us that doubt our spelling, rightly or wrongly, and double-check all words can feel a little bit relieved. Like some exes said, it is not you; it is the language. Spelling has its own logic, one that is unconcerned about mere mortals, whether they are native or non-native speakers. Fortunately, word processing, applications and AI have made it quite convenient to identify and fix any embarrassing errors. These tools do not eliminate the need to actually know the language as you still must choose the right word when two words with different meanings sound the same but are spelled differently, e.g., too vs two in English, but at least, we don’t have to look idiots when we write. We don’t have to feel like idiots either since, while there is a rationale to spelling rules in fact, it is one that often makes no sense to us.

Shibboleth – French legal terminology then and now

 

Traditionally, legal language has two purposes: to provide a precise term and to prevent the uninitiated from understanding. The Plain Language movement, at least in English-speaking countries, has somewhat diminished the second tendency to want to confuse the person on the street but that change is far from universal or consistent. As a case in point, Tom West, in his outstanding webinar for the ATA discussed recent changes to the French codes of law, emphasizing terminology. First, I would recommend watching his webinar (through the ATA) if you do legal translation or interpretation in the French/English language pair. On the linguistic front, it was fascinating how the French legal language achieves the desired level of encryption, notably applying vagueness, generality and sheer misleading. Granted, the code reforms have improved the situation in some cases but the examples shed light on the codification of law in both senses of the word.

The first technique is using a general term to describe a specific action. It is similar to saying “kitchen” when you mean to ask someone to turn off the light in the kitchen. One example in French legal terminology is imprévision, which means something unforeseen. In legal language, it refers to the damage caused by an unexpected event not specified in the contract or list of force majeure cases. The English translation is hardship. Another example is that, traditionally, French laws had to meet the standard of bonnes moeurs, literally “good morals”. The new term is ordre public  but the English term is public policy. Finally, the French equivalent of the famous standard of the reasonable person (previously man) is pėre de famille, taken from the Latin term. The term suggests a test of whether a proper father of a  family would take a given action. The French have quite reasonably replaced it with reasonable, apparently because the mothers of the family had had enough of this sexism. In all these cases, it is possible to guess the meaning of the word but it takes a bit of imagination.

A second technique is to take a general word and give it a specific meaning, creating the false impression that the reader actually understands the significance. A prime example is the word crime. Contrary to appearance, the term in French law only refers to the most serious of all offenses, murder, rape and the like, with délit referring to lesser crimes and contravention applying to a misdemeanor. I imagine that a French lawyer would not fully understand the name of the movie Crimes and Misdemeanors. Likewise, a jurisdiction d’exception actually refers to courts with specialized but limited areas of jurisdiction, such as the Commercial Court. Jurisdiction actually refers to a court while exception relates to a specialty. A final example is the common French word proximité, which sounds like and generally means nearness. Alas, in legal French, it would refer to a local or district court. Knowledge is the key.

Finally, some terms are simply misleading. The reformed code replaces the traditional French legal répétition with restitution. The previously used chambre de l’instruction is now honestly called a chambre des investigations and libertés. At least the first term is clear. Finally, the appel public à l’épargne, which had nothing to do with savings (the last word), is now an offre au public des titres financiers. That is a public share offering to English speakers. At least, someone in the French Parliament cared about plain language.

Legal language has always served as a way of allowing or preventing entrance, a shibboleth. To its credit, the French government is working on reducing its level of encoding. I suppose that French will always be more ambiguous than English for better or worse. A word (or two) to the wise, including those in the webinar,  prevents some serious misunderstandings for lawyers and translators.

The linguist’s tale – A personal confession of native language interference

 

The sad truth is the 99% of humanity will never sound like a native speaker when they speak a foreign language. We may have a great ear, solid knowledge of grammar and well-developed vocabulary. Yet, some strange turn of the tongue gives us away. The culprit is interference from our native language, tendencies that are so ingrained that they affect every other language we speak. It is similar to those habits learnt from our parents, which we swore we wouldn’t continue when we became adults, but which we have to ultimately accept. I will demonstrate by recounting my misdoings when I speak Russian, French and Hebrew, habits that I wish I could eliminate but never will. All that is left is accepting imperfection.

Russian involves a completely different form of thinking and construction. I have managed to grasp most of its peculiarities. Case declensions are a matter of memorization and practice. Putting a noun in the singular after any number that ends in the number 1, including 1,000,001, has its peculiar logic but still carries a rational rationale. Practice helps hone the differences between the imperfective and perfective verb forms, which reflect, as a rule, incomplete and complete actions, respectively. However, placing adjectival phrases before the noun they describe is beyond the ability of my brain to apply. To demonstrate, the English sentence “The dog sitting on the table enjoys vegetables roasted in the fire.” comes out in Russian “The sitting on the table dog enjoys roasted in the fire vegetables. This structure is too alien for me to apply consistently. Thus, I will always sound like an alien, a foreigner, when speaking Russian.

French is much more similar to English but also has its intricacies. A little practice helps a student master the subjunctive. Furthermore, my plus que parfait is almost better than perfect. After an insightful webinar by Grace Shalhoub, I even feel confident when I need to adjust the past participle to agree with the gender and number of the preceding direct object, not as simple as it may sound. However, regarding gender, here I fail. I cannot and have never been able to remember the rules for knowing whether the noun is masculine or feminine. Aside from the “tion” class of nouns, which are all feminine, I can find no rhyme or reason. Thus, I have always double-checked every noun to be sure. I do not trust my intuition or my ear, only the dictionary. It is my cross to bear in French.

Hebrew is my daily language. I enjoy a rich vocabulary and an intuitive sense of how to choose the proper verb category from the root. Thus, I can read awful Hebrew legalese and can apply the rules to form the right verb from a root even if I don’t formally grasp the rule. My downfall is cultural. In Hebrew, the verb form changes depending on whether the grammatical subject is male or female (as well as singular and plural). This manipulation occurs in 1^st, 2^nd and 3^rd persons. In simple words, the verb takes on a different form when a woman talks is or is talked about. As I have spent most of my life surrounded by females, e.g., spouse, daughter and colleagues, I tend to use the feminine form at all times, especially when I am tired and my brain is dragging. It sounds quite strange to refer to a male using the feminine form. In my defense, many foreigners make the same error. I understand that the cause of this error is the lack of such distinction in English. People forgive me because I am a foreigner but I am almost as embarrassed as my wife is when I make this error. I will continue to strive to reduce the error but it is impossible to eliminate.

This is my slightly tragic but mostly humorous tale about sounding like a foreigner. I know that I am not alone. The vast majority of people drag some feature of their native language into their adopted language. It is not a sin. However, as Tevye sang in Fiddler on the Roof, it is no great honor either. As humans are no more perfect in other parts of their lives, we have to accept our linguistic warts just as we need to come to peace with our other imperfections. To paraphrase Shakespeare, it is better to have spoken and erred than never have spoken at all.

Intuitive vs logical – complementary and necessary grammar approaches

 

Mastering the grammar of any language involves both intuition and rules. Clearly, every language user relies more heavily on one approach but neither by itself is foolproof. Both students and teachers require reinforcement of the weaker sense in order to hone their knowledge of a language. For example, ESL students benefit from grammar teaching that strengthens both approaches. Likewise, ESL teachers, whether native or non-native speakers cannot depend on intuition or knowledge of rules alone to master grammar and must invest in complementing their knowledge. I can attest to that process as I view my career as an ESL teacher.

Clearly, a good ear and an analytical mind both aid in learning in English grammar. Due to the quantity of English language material available worldwide, both audio and written, students can and do access English material from an early age and develop an instinctive grasp of “what sounds good”, sometimes almost to the level of those living in an English-speaking country. However, the grammar, vocabulary and register of much of this material are often very low, e.g., rap songs and TikTok videos. Thus, the learner may normalize a very low level or even incorrect sentence structure. By contrast, the formal grammar rules provide a certain scaffolding for correct grammar use. However, they also add an additional layer of processing before producing the sentence, which reduces fluency and confidence. Furthermore, formal rules may lead to artificial speech, i.e., structure that does not actually reflect actual language use. For example, it is possible to ask the question “With whom am I speaking” but the vast majority of English speakers say “Who am I speaking with”. Thus, overly rule-based speakers sound rather unnatural in terms of fluency and structure. Thus, it is not advisable to rely on only one approach.

Consequently, ESL students benefit from grammar teaching that creates both confidence and formal structure. For those students that hesitate to express themselves because they lack confidence in their knowledge or feel a need to be perfect, it is important that ESL teachers encourage spontaneous speech based on intuition. The solution is to emphasize that the listener will most probably fully understand the meaning even if there are grammatical errors. Moreover, the formal error may actually be the far more common form. For example, Americans tend to use past simple instead of present perfect in situations describing current consequences to past actions. Compare UK “I have eaten lunch.” (and am not hungry) to US “I ate lunch.” For “natural” speakers, learning the rules helps them identify and rectify improper use and interference from their native language. For example, in formal language like means "similar to", not "such as", as it is used in conversational speech. To err is not only human but actually better for communication in terms of fluency and natural language while a little knowledge of the rules can help them reduce grammar errors that create interference with meaning.

This issue also affects ESL teachers and their mastery of the material. On the one hand, native-language English teachers may have a highly-developed “ear” for the correct form. However, they often lack a formal knowledge of the rules as English classes in the US and UK generally do not teach grammar rules. For such teachers, it is vital to actively study the formal rules and, just as importantly, their similarities and differences with the first language(s) of the students. The former is required in order to properly explain while the latter is necessary to “hook” that information into the minds of the students. On the other hand, many non-native speakers develop an excellent understanding of the former rules as they have learned them in ESL classes. Unfortunately, many teachers, especially from those countries where governments have limited travel to English-speaking countries, have far less developed awareness of how people actually speak. Furthermore, they often are unaware of the nuances of grammar, i.e., the unspoken meaning that a native speaker would naturally pick up. When a parent asks a 15-year-old American girl what she was doing at 3:00 in the morning, the issue goes far beyond her physical location at the time. Thus, a complete teacher not only knows the rules but also the practice.

My journey as an ESL teacher reflects this dual need. Having educated parents and being a reader, my English was quite proficient. Yet, I failed standardized English tests because, having dyslexia, I read sentences instead of words. I applied my intuitive skills, including predictive reading, to become a highly effective reader but a poor analyzer of sentences. When I became an ESL teacher, I invested significant time and effort to understand how to teach grammar. I first grasped the rules and then sought (and seek) ways to transmit this information to my students not only to help them understand the concepts but also intuitively apply them in their use of English. After more than 30 years of English, my fellow staff members consider me an expert on grammar, which I find quite amusing. I even view it as a revenge on my 11^th grade English teacher, who gave me a “D” in her class. Learning how to teach English is an ongoing process.

In summary, language knowledge is a mélange of intuitive and formal knowledge of grammar and structure. Either one by itself is not sufficient to produce high-level language. Every language learner begins the journey with different levels of competency in the two aspects. However, to create the best language, both have to work in concert. It takes two to tango.

The best – in other words

 

Most people strive to be their best at something, with some making more effort than others. There was the Kobe Bryant principle: you have to invest 10,000 more hours than your closest competitor in order to stay at the top. Languages, of course, have numerous terms expressing that ideal state, including English. They refer to nature, height, relative status or personal comparison. As for which is the choicest expression, that is a matter of opinion.

Nature provides a rich source of comparison, even if the context does not always make sense. The cream of the crop and the borrowed French crème de la crème refer to the rich part that rises to the top of the milk, the tastiest bit. If someone is the cat’s whiskers or the cat’s meow, there is no better if you are a cat lover. Similarly, dog purchasers can fully understand the pick of the litter as not all dogs are born equal.  By contrast, regarding a bee’s knees, it is difficult to observe a bee’s knees or grasp their perfection, but that is the term. On the inanimate front, some people are the salt of the earth, which relates to the importance and rarity of salt in pre-refrigerator days, which also explains the word salary. Being the gold standard requires a bit of historical knowledge. It took a while before people trusted “greenbacks” as US paper bills were initially referred to (maybe similar to the attitude toward bitcoin today).  A strange expression from long ago is the best thing since sliced bread. I am too old for that to make any sense to me. However, when I was a kid, we used to refer to peers with extraordinary skill as hot shit, most curiously, a positive expression. The natural world is a rich source of vocabulary.

Of course, the best are always above the others as reflected in a plethora of comparative expressions. To be head and shoulders above everybody is even better than being second to none because the gap is larger. If a person is top-notch or tip-top, the endpoint of a literal or figurative scale, they reach where others cannot. Thus, we look up to them. On a classical note, a person that is the Mt. Olympus in his/her field is almost godlike. In a similar vein, a person can be a real Michael Jordan, Mark Spitz, Mickey Mantle or Michael Jackson, to name a few, who represent the pinnacle of success in their profession at a given time. Alas, age takes its toll. By contrast, if an object is isolated from contact with the environment, it can remain in mint condition, as perfect as it was when it was produced.  The point is that these people were the epitome of perfection in at least one aspect of their lives. The higher, the better.

Yet, success is relative. It is fantastic to be an all-star but it is better to be a GOAT, the greatest of all time. (Michael Jordan or LeBron James?) Likewise, to be recognized as a real pro is an honor but being called a pro’s pro is a cut above. Every student knows that parents appreciate the words “cum laude” but top of the class brings a shine to the face of the entire family (as well as leads to future scholarships and attractive jobs). Such people are in a class of their own. It is great to be a man among boys. Interestingly, as far as I have ever heard, nobody ever says a “woman among girls” but maybe I am wrong. For all I know, women may use it today to describe the queen of their circle. Success is relative

As Carly Simon sang so poignantly in the James Bond movie “The Spy Who Loved Me”, it can be said about some people in some areas of life that “nobody does it better”. Not only that, in English, it is possible to express that compliment in so many ways.

Ageful words

 

Apparently, human beings are inherent librarians: they need to classify the people around them, divide and conquer if you will.  Clearly, one of the main criteria is age. English, like most languages, has a rich vocabulary to specify the age of a person. Some are more general; some are more specific, or at least try to be; others express some kind judgment of relationship. These words define us and those that describe us.

In general, human beings are grossly divided into children, adults, and the elderly.  People break up these large generalizations into developmental groups. At one end are infants and toddlers. At some point, they become adolescents, adults and eventually senior citizens. In general, pre-adults want to become grown-ups at some time or another. Another method is to refer to their educational or occupational status. Starting from preschoolers, children become primary or elementary school children, junior high schoolers, senior high schoolers and sometimes college students. For greater specificity, parents and teachers refer to the actual grade, e.g., 5^th graders. Statisticians use the term working-age adults to describe that long period between school and retirement.  Once people stop working, they become pensioners or retirees. In some societies, the older folk are called elders as in "Respect your elders". When school or age is a bit vague, decades will do the job. Someone is in their teens or 20’s, for example. These terms are rather objective in their meaning, without being judgmental.

However, many age-related words in English carry implications, whether about the user or the intended person. The common word kid implies that the person in question is not an adult, which may be fine or may suggest immaturity on that person’s part or an inability or lack of desire to make changes. It is not the same when a child says, “Let’s sit at the kids’ table” as when an older person scowls and says, “Those kids annoy me,” or parents say of their children over the age of 30, “The kids are coming over for dinner.” In a later period of life, the term teenager has a negative image, implying annoying and unpleasant behavior. Teenagers do not refer to themselves as teenagers. Likewise, only educators and grandparents refer to older adolescents as a “young man” or “young woman”. Similarly, no person in their teens has ever said, “I am a youth”. Judgments don’t improve later in life. Being middle-aged does not refer to an actual age. It means no longer young and going downhill. The elderly are considered weak and a bit sick. As for older people, primarily younger people use that, and at their risk. It is very difficult to be politically correct when using these terms.

Thus, ageism and age-words accompany us throughout our lives. We, the objects of the terms, can only choose how we react to them. Curiously, I do not know how I would describe myself.  I am 65 years old and still working. Childhood and even middle age are behind me; retirement and serious disability are still in the future. I like to say that I have reached the age of respect, i.e., people make allowances for me, such as giving me a seat on the bus, because of my age. Ultimately, we are who we are at any given moment; the relevant word depends on the actual circumstances but does not make any difference. Yet, that truth will never stop people from categorizing you. They can’t help it.

Say what or the joy of trying to understand extreme accents in foreign languages

 

Most people in the world are exposed to a second language. Some are fortunate enough to live in a place where many languages are spoken while others have to learn an additional language in a more formal way at school. Regardless of how well they are exposed to a foreign language, people always have less confidence in their knowledge of it relative to their mother tongue. There is no method more certain to feed that doubt than to visit a place where people speak a version of the foreign language so different from what they learned that it is hard to understand. The failure to understand immediately raises the question whether this incomprehension is a result of poor knowledge or the “weird” manner of speaking. Almost every language has these outliers, including French, Spanish, Arabic and English. The cause of the local uniqueness may be historical, linguistic, geographic or any combination of these. The difficulty posed by these variants makes being a translator far easier than being an interpreter in terms of language knowledge.

Even after the advent of radio and television, devices that shattered geographical language barriers, every area, whether a village, city, province or country, has its own vocabulary and way of pronouncing words to one degree or another. In some cases, the resulting dialect is so different from the standard language that even non-local native speakers struggle to understand it. For example, the Picard dialect in northern France sounds like French but only “sort of” due to its strange syntax. Of all of the Spanish variants, Chilean Spanish combines rapid speech with missing syllables and local vocabulary, a deadly combination. As for Arabic, putting aside Moroccan Arabic, which is a language in itself, Bedouin Arabic is beyond the ability of most non-native speakers to understand due to its different pronunciation of certain sounds, among other reasons. The English language enjoys a myriad of accents, with among the most confusing existing in Scotland and the parts of the south in the United States. Even native speakers struggle to understand what the locals are saying. An encounter with any of these dialects will instill doubt in the most intrepid of language learners.

The source of these local language identities may be historical, i.e., it is a previous form of the language. For example, Church Slavonic is the old Orthodox Slavic language, which was retained in Church literary and speech even after the reform of the Russian language in the 18^th century. The Cajans or Acadians, who live in Louisiana, speak an old Breton French as part of their creole dialect as they left France several centuries ago. Old Anglo-Saxon speech survives in signs and the writings of Tolkien, who studied the language. It is possible to find bits and pieces of previous “versions” of language here and there.

A more common factor in a very local dialect is the presence of other languages in the area and among the population. French speakers in all of the colonies may use the French framework but freely integrate words from African or other native languages into their speech, including even Dutch in some northern areas of France. Berber, a non-Arabic language, makes its presence felt in North African Arabic. Spanish in South America borrows Indian words while English in many southwestern states in the United States steals terms from Spanish. Depending on the local ethnic mix, the main language develops its own style.

From another point of view, geographical isolation is a vital factor in differentiation. Where mountains or extreme geography limit contact with other cultures, languages develop in their own way. The heights of mountain ranges, the great distances of the oceans, the lengths of the desert and depths of the jungle cut off a language from its source and ultimately create a new one over time. The dialect becomes ever more distinct from the standard form.

This evolution creates challenges for linguists. For interpreters, this diversity means that knowing the standard version may not be sufficient to be able to understand the speaker. By contrast, written communication remains relatively standard over cultures. Official Russian from the Brezhnev era is not much different than the current form. For the foreign visitor under the impression that several years of language study in high school or college will ensure smooth linguistic sailing in foreign lands, it is a shock to experience total incomprehension. The only reaction to the flood of apparent gibberish is “say what”. However, to cheer up any bewildered foreign visitors to such areas, it is normal. It is not you. It’s them, at least from the visitor’s perspective.

Keys to the house – the essence of an effective oral presentation

 

From classrooms to courtrooms, conferences to company meeting rooms and legislatures to webinars, one key to long-term professional success is the ability to make a persuasive oral argument. Due to the pervasive nature of English worldwide, many, if not most, presenters must make their statements in a foreign language. To quite a few non-native language speakers, this task seems Herculean, i.e., not only to stand up and talk in front of people but to do so in a second or even third language. Yet, the relative disadvantages of foreign speakers do not need to prejudice the effectiveness of their presentation because the most important elements of an impactful presentation are in their power.

First, it is vital to understand the dual purpose of an oral presentation. Clearly, listeners expect to receive the information they need or want (or told they need or want). They appreciate clear and appropriately deep explanations with sufficient support. They do not want to have masses of small print on a projector screen or need to interpret data. They can do that from the comfort of their desks. For the speaker, presentations offer the perfect opportunity for people to show their value. It is not always about being the greatest expert but rather about their effectiveness in transmitting that knowledge. A well-presented explanation creates a positive opinion of the person’s ability and strengths. This impression lasts far longer than the details or relevance of the actual information. Thus, both the audience and the presenter can benefit.

Contrary to popular belief, the accuracy and level of the language have only a minor impact on the long-term effect. Given the high percentage of presentations in English made by non-native speakers, native English speakers generally have some tolerance for minor grammar errors as long as they do not affect meaning. Occasional pronunciation, usually misaccented words, is accepted for the most part. Choosing simpler words, as many foreigners do, is not only not a sin but can actually a virtue in many cases. As for sentence structure, even native speakers get confused when making presentations. While a perfect presentation in terms of language is the goal, it is only an ideal, not a reality. As long as the language and message are clear, to err is human.

The truly significant elements of a successful presentation are preparation, fluency and confidence. The best lecturers make their presentations seem effortless just as NBA players make free throws seem easy (except for Shaq O’Neil). Their ease and comfort are partly a matter of personality and experience but much more a matter of organization and practice. They know what they will say because they have arranged the material and spoken about it so many times beforehand, albeit to their dog or cat or another willing listener. Practice does make almost perfect. This preparation allows the presenter to speak fluently since it frees the mind to focus on language and the audience, not on the content. In other words, they know what they want to say and can thus apply their effort to reaching the audience. Furthermore, fluency creates the image of confidence, which most listeners accept without question, i.e.,  if the speaker acts as if s/he knows the material, the listener can trust that person. Together, organizing, practice, fluency and confidence are the hallmarks of an effective lecture.

It is important to note that the issue of language mastery does not affect those elements. Many native speakers are awful lecturers, as anybody who ever studied at an American or British university can attest. Instead, the most important aspects of an impressive lecture are in the hands of any speaker, native or not. Clearly, foreign speakers require greater time and effort than native ones. Of course, extremely subpar language can render listening painful. However, as long as the language issues are minor, any English speaker can produce an effective presentation.

Med veg vettings or curious cases of vegetable nomenclatures

 

Mediterranean cuisine is known for its use of vegetables. Curiously, many of the most typical vegetables in the cuisine are not native to the area, meaning they were imported and had to be named. As any player in a telephone game knows, fascinating versions of the original can arise, which can now be seen today in green grocer’s sign in any given country. As an example, the history of the naming of tomatoes, peppers and eggplants shows some of the methods of the madness of naming.

Tomatoes are a staple of Italian and most southern European cooking. They originated in South America. The Aztecs referred to them as tomatl, a name that the Spanish brought back to Europe and is reflected in English and French, among others. However, the Italians received the yellow version of the fruit. As with all exotic foods, marketing is key. Therefore, it was called a  “golden apple”, i.e., pomo d’oro, which became pomodore in one word. The Hebrew story is even more wild. In the late 19^th century when Eliezer Ben Yehuda and others were re-establishing Hebrew as a daily language and inventing words for modern terms, Eliezer Ben Yehuda decided on the word עגבניה [agvania], which is derived from the root for passion or great pleasure. As in most matters in Israel, many people disagreed but eventually agvania became the known and accepted term of this omnipresent vegetable. Marketing and accidents of import had an impact.

Peppers, another South American immigrant to European kitchens, also took a curious path. Europeans had used pepper corns, an imported nut, to spice their food for a long time. With the arrival of peppers, both hot and sweet, the Europeans added an element and confused the matter. Specifically, the word pepper refers both to the plant and spice. See paprika in Hungarian and peperoni in Italian, which also designate the plant. In English, the easy solution was the addition of bell or the color to the vegetable name, e.g., green or bell peppers. However, in Israel, agriculture is a passion. Local agronomists have always sought to improve variants, e.g., the cherry tomato. For example, Israel stores always carry a light green bell papper, ideal for stuffing. It is known as a Nahariya pepper because it was developed near Nahariya, a small town on the coast near the Lebanese border. Israelis are also major consumers of gombot, a red bell pepper. The name derives from an Italian variant, a gamba, and now refers to most large red bell peppers in Israel. Of course, each country has countless variants of this pepper, which is far more than a spice.

Last but not least is the royal eggplant. Probably originally from South Asia, it traveled via Persia, North Africa and Catalonia to reach European kitchens. The word origin is the Sanskrit vātiga-gama, which means “the plant that cures the wind”, and Arabic al-bādhinjān. That last version explains the French “aubergine” (with the Arabic “the”, al, being absorbed as a root). As for the English eggplant , it appears that initially the English in India were rather fond of a white skinned variant, hence the eggplant. As usual, Hebrew presents the most confusing story. Based on a post on the subject, חציל [hatzil] is a new Hebrew word invented in the late 19th century based on a rare Arabic word, حَيْصَل, [haizal]. As usual, many others suggested alternatives. The eggplant does enjoy a wide variety of calling cards.

It is hard to imagine Mediterranean cooking or any other kitchen without these basic vegetables. Yet, they came as immigrants and experienced the same name confusion as many human immigrants have experienced. A rose is a rose is a rose but it may have a local name, which is all the fun. Nomenclature is a product of both intention and accident also in Mediterranean vegetables.

All pictures from Pixabay

Rebranding or nostalgia ain’t what it used to be

 

This last week, linguists celebrated International Translation Day. Many translator organizations and sites marked the occasion, notably Proz.com, which featured two days of lectures and discussions on the state of the profession. Of course, the speakers mentioned AI numerous times, often in the context of how it impacts the profession. Most importantly, the various speakers analyzed the different ways that translators can continue to make a living given an uncertain future that will definitely include AI. One sentence struck a strong chord: whatever you do, do what you love because your passion affects the quality, which is the most important advantage human translators can have over AI. Furthermore, one lecturer noted there will always be a need for expert translators in specialist fields even with improved AI. In that light, I understand that I need to react to the changes in the market in my over 22 years of translation before it is too late. Unfortunately, I do not receive much pleasure when editing or using AI. Thus, I have decided to embrace my experience, drop my other areas of translation and specialize in one field, specifically Hebrew to English legal translation, as it provides the base for my future in all respects.

When I first started translation in 2004, I knew little of my skills or the translation world and chose to cast a wide net. I started my journey by preparing an inventory of my knowledge, specifically four languages, specifically English, Hebrew, French and Russian, and two areas of knowledge, law and finance. Small translation agencies dominated the market at the time. Thus, it seemed logical to create a multilingual brand with several specializations to catch the most fish. I did not know enough to identify any specific target markets and thus created, in effect, a more general brand.

The market had changed radically since then, primarily due to technology and conglomeration. AI and machine translation of all types have eliminated many market niches, including email and personal translation. At the same time, the same technology has created a strong demand for machine translation post editing (MTPE). On an organizational level, large international corporations have gobbled up one small agency after another, creating large volume, low-cost translation venues at the expense of translator rates. At the same time, it should be noted that many well-paying niches not only exist but are thriving, notably legal, medical, marketing and transcreation, which provide ample opportunity for qualified linguists.

As I considered my future (Yom Kippur is an ideal day for doing that), I finally understood that my initial approach, however relevant it was at the time, is no longer effective. I am now choosing to formally embrace the field I enjoy the most, work most efficiently and am most proficient at [Winston Churchill said it was proper to end a sentence with a preposition]. I will solely focus on Hebrew- to-English legal translation, which is mainly what I have been doing for some 10 years now. I have studied legal writing, especially Plain English. Moreover, I am not only quite efficient in translating and editing legal translation but am more proficient at them than many other translators. Thus, as far as anybody can foresee the future, I feel my career has a solid basis.

Giving up the past is never easy. For that reason, people hold on to objects that no longer have any practical value. I still enjoy reading and speaking French. As for Russian, it is quite a useful language in Israel. I may choose to take on a small appropriate task in those languages. However, there is no feeling like doing a task very well especially if it is something that you enjoy. As for the price of rebranding, it requires redoing my marketing approach but better late than never. It may be fun to look back from time to time but success requires forward-looking.

Exotic or alien – when does a foreign word remain a stranger

 

All speakers and writers choose their words. Linguists, including authors, editors and translators, may invest more time and energy in this choice but even the most basic user seeks the best term in terms of register, connotation and impact. Essentially, the chosen word must sound right, which is a matter of accustomed sound. Words with unusual phonetic signatures sound strange. However, in terms of word choice, as there are no “pure” nations in terms of racial background, there are no pure languages in terms of roots. An exchange of words occurs anytime one culture meets another. In some cases, the words become an integral part of the language and lose their foreignness. In other cases, people use these words despite their non-local origin because there is no substitute in the original language. However. in many cases, speakers of different generations and points of view may disagree whether a given verbal immigrant has any raison d’être as there exists a highly adequate term. The processs never ends.

Some foreign words have been a part of a language for so long that they have become native. For example, in Russian, the word for beach, пляж [plajh], comes from the French plage while the term for a train station вокзал [vokzal] is derived from the English Vauxhall, the name on the first locomotive in Russia (from St. Petersburg to the Tsar’s village). This use of Western terminology does not bother the most nationalistic Russian. Likewise, an insulated American has no problem calling a nice sidewalk eatery a café, as distinguished by its poorer cousin, the coffee shop. New York brokers, Jewish or not, often consult a maven, a word derived from Yiddish and Hebrew, if they need an expert opinion. In Israel, Jews whose family came from Tunisia or Ethiopia use the words קיוסק, kiosk, and צ'ופצ'יק [chupchik], a whatchamacallit, whose origins are in distant Russia, without batting an eyelash. These words have become a basic part of the language.

Other foreign words still sound like immigrants but the language needs them. For example, a party can be fancy or posh but the French chic adds another dimension to the description. For describing a corrupt military dictatorship, there is no better word in English than junta, Spanish in sound and origin, and so succinct. In France, the left-wing parties are now considering holding les primaires, a gem taken from the Anglo-Saxon tradition of primaries and a relatively recent development in French politics. Hebrew is an active borrower of English terms to describe concepts that its limited root system struggles to cope with. For example, business people use the word אֵפֶקְטִיבִי [effectivi] [effective] to emphasize one aspect of the Hebrew word יָעִיל [yail], which encompasses both effectiveness and efficiency. Many Israelis have become quite skilled in terms of their ability לנרמל [lenormel], to normalize, the current situation. Languages must keep up with the times. Sometimes, it is easier to copy than to invent a word.

Nevertheless, foreign adoption can go too far, at least in some people’s eyes. The average American or Brit, depending on socio-economic background, may find it pretentious if a person said a pied-á-terre for a vacation home or “what do you think of my new coif” instead “How’s the haircut?”. The average French may have seemed to accept “le weekend”” and “le shopping” but French intellectuals and writers are far from happy with such terms, especially when the French terms are perfectly sufficient. As for Hebrew, many Israelis cringe when chefs say “crispy” instead of פריך [parich}. Even worse, in the ears of many lovers of the Holy language is the adoption of לקחת חלק [lakahat helek], the literal translation of the English take part, instead of the solid Hebrew word להשתתף [lehishtatef]. Many people believe that speakers should be proud of their language (regardless if so many of its words are derived from foreign roots).

The use of foreign words is a matter of both ideology and usefulness. Clearly, no language academy can determine which foreign word will go native and which will always be a stranger. However, the introduction of foreign words is one of the basic tools for intrinsic language development and occurs quite naturally. The answer to the question whether using a foreign word is chic or a faux pas is subjective by definition, as all language users, including translators, know.

Devised device names – a tri-lingual look at appliances

Innovative products require descriptive names. In practice, languages use completely different roots to describe the same technology. As an example, French and Hebrew apply different approaches to describe a vacuum cleaner, iron and car as compared to English.

In the case of the vacuum cleaner, each language emphasizes a different aspect. The English term for the vacuum cleaner, developed in the first decade of the 20^th century, focuses on the physics of the device, i.e., by creating a vacuum, pressure differences cause the air to rise up into the bag, taking with any trapped dust with it. The French aspirateur is derived from the root to breathe upon, which is strange because the appliance actually inhales, not exhales. The Hebrew שואב אבק [shoev avak] literally means “sucks dust”, which is exactly what a hoover does. Different strokes for different folks.

An iron is a far more ancient device, used by the Greeks in 400 BCE and developed gradually until the invention of the electric iron in the 1880’s. The English term identifies it by its standard material, iron. The Hebrew term מַגְהֵץ [maghetz] notes its function, smoothing out clothes. The French equivalent takes no chances, specifying both – un fer à repasser, literally an iron for ironing. Ironically, the French term is the clearest.

Cars have been part of modern life since the end of the 19^th century. The modern English term for a motorized vehicle is an automobile, having long laid to rest its predecessor the horseless carriage. The meaning of the English term is a vehicle that moves itself, i.e., without the need for horses. The French voiture refers to a carriage, something that carries objects, which a car does resemble to an outside viewer. The Hebrew term מְכוֹנִית [mechonit] merely states that it is a machine with a possible implication of being small or feminine. This lack of precision apparently has not prevented people from easily attaching the Hebrew word to the object. Humans are clearly quite adept at abstract thinking.

These examples demonstrate the multiplicity of approaches to devising words for new devices. The powers that make these decisions can focus on the shape, material, process or purpose, among other elements. Regardless of the case, through repetition, language users learn to equate a word and object and even stop thinking about the reasons for the name. Yet, understanding the logic provides a peak into human thinking. 

Endearing words – price, value and the English language

 

Individual words have a unique and rich texture, describing a reality far more complex than their formal equivalents. To illustrate this texture, I will analyze words that describe prices and their accompanying value perception to show that these words are not true synonyms but instead complementary words.

On the upper side, some items are expensive, which merely implies that the price is above average with a tad bit of judgment regarding its worthwhileness, which can be explained. For example, I can say that that that the cake is expensive but worth every cent. On a more generic note, a purchase may involve a big-ticket item, such as a truck, which, by definition, costs more money objectively. People with a desire to impress or a need for quality may choose to purchase a top-of-the-line or high-end model, the fanciest option, or make their purchase at a high-street location, where the most expensive stores are located. What is lost in savings is gained in prestige and quality. For elegant parties, hosts may choose to invest in premium products, such as imported ham, or lavish entertainment, such as full orchestra, which do luxuries. Swanky hotels are really good at impressing but come at a high price. Many guests will appreciate the effort. Somethings that glitter are gold in price and quality.

However, far more people and cultures frown on wasteful spending. In other words, they hate to overpay and avoid buying overpriced goods and services, defined as more expensive that they “should” be. If people feel that the price is above the market, i.e., too high, they might be embarrassed to discover that they had paid a pretty penny, which is not attractive at all, or been a victim of highway robbery, as the cost of an ice cream from a beach vendor, which borders on criminal. If goods are in short supply, sellers ask for an exuberant price, which is far more than it should be, meaning it is sky high. Of course, nobody wants to pay an arm and a leg for anything if they have a choice.

By contrast, many families are proud of being thrifty, knowing how to the get the most from their money. They appreciate a good value, one where the quality and cost reflect each other. They have no problem being popular priced items, those are inexpensive, and get by with budget options, those costing less. Everyday low prices are what they seek.  Even better, they relish finding items on sale for that day or discounted for any reason since these prices are especially low. They enjoy making a real steal if they can find an item at wholesale prices, which are clearly less than any retail ones. Low-street vendors, located far from the main shopping areas, and the bargain basement, the lowest floor of many department stores where one can find a real buy, are their favorite venues. Many people by choice or necessity must be very economical.

However, everything has a limit. Cheap goods are, unfortunately both low in price and quality. If it is a dime, a dozen, it fails to impress those in the know. If someone buys cut-rate or insists on dirt-cheap goods, it is clear that quality is completely irrelevant. Items bought for a song are often too good to be true but not always. For example, the Dutch sold New Amsterdam to the British, who renamed it New York, for the equivalent $24. Anybody selling at rock-bottom prices is not making money, which makes no sense in most cases. Thus, there is a floor somewhere in low prices.

Therefore, when choosing which word to describe a price, consider all elements, not only the direction but also the connotation. Calling your mother-in-law cheap or accountant exuberant could have unpleasant results. In practice, choosing the wrong word can cost you dear, meaning have a high price beyond your expectations. May this column enrich your knowledge and save you from misunderstandings.

The words behind the speech – English terms for oration

 

[silver frame]

Speech is silver, as it is said, and is as malleable as the metal. Humans shape words to express a variety of meanings and purposes. English, as do all languages, reflects this complexity by having specific terms for a verbal compositon, each one reflecting a locale, purpose and/or organization.

Some speeches only occur at specific locations. For example, a person gives a keynote speech only at conferences and similar events, thus introducing the topic of the gathering. To give an address requires a crowd to whom the speaker wishes to make a point. The most famous address in American history is Lincoln’s Gettysburg address. Reporters, official or de facto, provide live reports from a disaster scene, telling listeners what happened and/or is happening. At a school assembly or cultural event, a person may give a recitation, a rendering of a famous speech or poem. Smaller children may do a show and tell, which is an opportunity for younger children to present their interests to their peers. Likewise, at schools of all levels, teacher give lectures, which parents also do, for the purpose of explaining some matter with a wide variance in the level of attention by the audience. In sports, coaches in the locker room often give a pep talk, either before the game or at half time, in order to motivate the players, e.g., Knute Rockne’s “win it for the Gipper”. Apparently, sometimes it helps. Finally, who needs an audience at least formally? A monologue is when a person, often an actor, speaks to himself/herself on stage in front, granted in the presence of an audience. Unfortunately, many matrimonial arguments sound like simultaneous monologues. Shakespeare’s “to be or not to be” from Hamlet is the most famous soliloquy, a stage word for a monologue. The proper choice of word may depend on where it is taking place.

The correct term must also reflect the purpose of the speech. When praising people, it may be a panegyric or a eulogy, if it at a funeral after the person died. By contrast, a diatribe is a short directed critical speech while a harangue tends to be a bit longer. More is not better in this case. A strange mixture of both praise and criticism is a roast, in which various people humorously and publicly discuss the personality aspects, both good and bad, of a famous person, which can be positive if you accept Oscar Wilde’s comment: “the only things worse than being talked about is not being talked about.” If the purpose of the speech is a call for action, it is called an exhortation, something that Communist leaders were rather fond of. On a more specific level, an appeal calls for some action from the heart, such as the giving of a donation, while a pitch tries to persuade people to buy a product. The “why” of the speech may determine the correct word.

Finally, the choice of word may express the level of organization of a speech. A discourse is an attempt to provide a complete picture while a presentation tries to show the important aspects in an understandable way. By contrast, a rant is an almost stream-of-consciousness, i.e., chaotic, release of ideas such that the listener has a hard time following the ideas. A tirade generally has a clear point but suffers the loss of its focus and that of the listeners due to its duration.

All speech involves the oral use of words and sounds. Yet, these words involve many other aspects of communication beyond their literal meaning, including the location, their intent and their structure or lack thereof. Thus, speech is as important and differentiable as silver.